Apparatus and method for endurance of non-volatile memory banks via wear leveling with linear indexing

ABSTRACT

Endurance mechanisms are introduced for memories such as non-volatile memories for broad usage including caches, last-level cache(s), embedded memory, embedded cache, scratchpads, main memory, and storage devices. Here, non-volatile memories (NVMs) include magnetic random-access memory (MRAM), resistive RAM (ReRAM), ferroelectric RAM (FeRAM), phase-change memory (PCM), etc. In some cases, features of endurance mechanisms (e.g., randomizing mechanisms) are applicable to volatile memories such as static random-access memory (SRAM), and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). The endurance mechanisms include a wear leveling scheme that uses index rotation, outlier compensation to handle weak bits, and random swap injection to mitigate wear out attacks.

BACKGROUND

Static random-access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-access memory(DRAM) have high endurance. Conversely, memory technologies such asferroelectric based memories, magnetic random-access memories, andthree-dimensional cross-point memory have limited endurance. Due tolimited endurance, products that use these memory technologies use wearleveling schemes such as flash translation layer for flash memories.Flash translation layer has high overheard and such techniques are notsuitable for ferroelectric based memories.

The background description provided here is for the purpose of generallypresenting the context of the disclosure. Unless otherwise indicatedhere, the material described in this section is not prior art to theclaims in this application and are not admitted to be prior art byinclusion in this section.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The embodiments of the disclosure will be understood more fully from thedetailed description given below and from the accompanying drawings ofvarious embodiments of the disclosure, which, however, should not betaken to limit the disclosure to the specific embodiments, but are forexplanation and understanding only.

FIG. 1A illustrates a high-level endurance enhancement architecture forferroelectric memory banks, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 1B illustrates a flowchart of memory endurance for ferroelectricmemory banks, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2A illustrates a wear leveling scheme for a ferroelectric memorybank, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 2B illustrates a flowchart of memory endurance using wear leveling,in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 3 illustrates a pseudocode for mapping an index to an index rotatedcache, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 4 illustrates a pseudocode for rotating the index, incrementing thegap pointer and start pointer, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 5A illustrates an outlier compensation scheme for a ferroelectricmemory bank, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 5B illustrates a flowchart of memory endurance using outliercompensation, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 6A illustrates a wear out attack mitigation scheme (using randomswap injection) for a ferroelectric memory bank, in accordance with someembodiments.

FIG. 6B illustrates a flowchart of memory endurance using random swapinjection for wear leveling, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 7 illustrates a pseudo-code for random swap injection, inaccordance with embodiments.

FIG. 8 illustrates a wear leveling scheme where memory banks share gapand start pointers, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 9 illustrates a wear leveling scheme where memory banks haveseparate gap and start pointers, in accordance with some embodiments.

FIG. 10 illustrates a flowchart of a wear leveling method where swapsare performed in a round robin manner, in accordance with someembodiments.

FIG. 11 illustrates a flowchart of a wear leveling method where memoryis divided into regions (e.g., banks) and a region selector selects aregion where memory words or cache-lines are swapped, in accordance withsome embodiments.

FIG. 12 illustrates a wear leveling scheme where multiple remappingalgorithms are layered over each other, in accordance with someembodiments.

FIG. 13 illustrates flowchart of wear leveling scheme where multipleremapping algorithms are layered over each other, in accordance withsome embodiments.

FIG. 14 illustrates a system-on-chip (SOC) that uses ferroelectricmemory with endurance enhancement, in accordance with some embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Some embodiments describe endurance mechanisms for memories such asnon-volatile memories for broad usage including caches, last-levelcache(s), embedded memory, embedded cache, scratchpads, main memory, andstorage devices. Here, non-volatile memories (NVMs) include magneticrandom-access memory (MRAM), resistive RAM (ReRAM), ferroelectric RAM(FeRAM), phase-change memory (PCM), etc. In some embodiments,non-volatile memories may have non-volatile material that still need arefresh action as contents may be disturbed over time. For example,FeRAM may apply a refresh scheme to make sure the contents in itscapacitor remain valid. The refresh may be applied periodically or on aneed-by-need basis. For instance, refresh may be applied every 1 second,or applied when a sensor determines that the contents on a storage nodehave been disturbed. While various embodiments are described withreference to FeRAM, the embodiments are applicable to other NVMs such asthose listed here. In some embodiments, the NVM is integrated on a diewhich include compute logic. In some embodiments, NVM is a separate diewhich is packaged in a single package with a compute die. In someembodiments, the NVM is on a different package than the compute die.Here, examples of compute die include a die that is used forcomputations such as an inference logic, graphics processing unit,central processing unit, application specific integrated circuit (ASIC),digital signal processor, etc. In some embodiments, features ofendurance mechanisms (e.g., randomizing mechanisms) are applicable tovolatile memories such as static random-access memory (SRAM), anddynamic random-access memory (DRAM).

The endurance mechanisms of some embodiments include a wear levelingscheme that uses index rotation, outlier compensation to handle weakbits, and random swap injection (which is an example of a randomizingmechanism) to mitigate wear out attacks. In some embodiments, indexrotation logic is provided, which rotates the addresses throughout amemory bank to perform a wear leveling function. Index rotation logicensures that memory requests are spread across memory locations ratherthan a single memory location. In some embodiments, randomizingmechanism is used to randomize a mapping of an incoming address to anintermediate index. One example, of randomizing mechanism includes arandom invertible bit matrix. This intermediate index is used by anindex rotation logic to map to an actual physical index. In someembodiments, the rotation of gap words in the memory bank is randomized.In some cases, malicious users (or attackers) may write programs thatdeliberately track the wear leveling scheme described herein. Theseattackers may attempt to alter a memory reference pattern to continue tostress a single physical line even as the wear leveling scheme assignsthat physical line to different addresses. Some embodiments provide afacility to make tracking of the physical lines difficult. This facilitymakes a random decision (e.g., using an externally generated randomnumber) to either swap or not each time a swap opportunity arises. Overtime the randomness injected into the swapping process makes trackingcache lines more difficult. In some embodiments, random invertible bitmatrix enables random swap injection which randomizes index rotation toobfuscate the mapping from addresses to rotated indexes. In someembodiments, bit repair logic is provided, which includes double errorcorrecting, or triple error detecting error correction code (ECC) todiscover new bit errors and spare disable which eliminates memory wordswith particularly high error rates.

There are many technical effects of the various embodiments. Forexample, memory endurance for ferroelectric memory is enhanced by theendurance mechanisms of various embodiments. This allows more read andwrites to memory before any memory block, bank, or word becomesunreliable. Other technical effects will be evident from the variousembodiments and figures.

In the following description, numerous details are discussed to providea more thorough explanation of embodiments of the present disclosure. Itwill be apparent, however, to one skilled in the art, that embodimentsof the present disclosure may be practiced without these specificdetails. In other instances, well-known structures and devices are shownin block diagram form, rather than in detail, in order to avoidobscuring embodiments of the present disclosure.

Note that in the corresponding drawings of the embodiments, signals arerepresented with lines. Some lines may be thicker, to indicate moreconstituent signal paths, and/or have arrows at one or more ends, toindicate primary information flow direction. Such indications are notintended to be limiting. Rather, the lines are used in connection withone or more exemplary embodiments to facilitate easier understanding ofa circuit or a logical unit. Any represented signal, as dictated bydesign needs or preferences, may actually comprise one or more signalsthat may travel in either direction and may be implemented with anysuitable type of signal scheme.

The term “device” may generally refer to an apparatus according to thecontext of the usage of that term. For example, a device may refer to astack of layers or structures, a single structure or layer, a connectionof various structures having active and/or passive elements, etc.Generally, a device is a three-dimensional structure with a plane alongthe x-y direction and a height along the z direction of an x-y-zCartesian coordinate system. The plane of the device may also be theplane of an apparatus, which comprises the device.

Throughout the specification, and in the claims, the term “connected”means a direct connection, such as electrical, mechanical, or magneticconnection between the things that are connected, without anyintermediary devices.

The term “coupled” means a direct or indirect connection, such as adirect electrical, mechanical, or magnetic connection between the thingsthat are connected or an indirect connection, through one or morepassive or active intermediary devices.

The term “adjacent” here generally refers to a position of a thing beingnext to (e.g., immediately next to or close to with one or more thingsbetween them) or adjoining another thing (e.g., abutting it).

The term “circuit” or “module” may refer to one or more passive and/oractive components that are arranged to cooperate with one another toprovide a desired function.

The term “signal” may refer to at least one current signal, voltagesignal, magnetic signal, or data/clock signal. The meaning of “a,” “an,”and “the” include plural references. The meaning of “in” includes “in”and “on.”

Here, the term “analog signal” generally refers to any continuous signalfor which the time varying feature (variable) of the signal is arepresentation of some other time varying quantity, i.e., analogous toanother time varying signal.

Here, the term “digital signal” generally refers to a physical signalthat is a representation of a sequence of discrete values (a quantifieddiscrete-time signal), for example of an arbitrary bit stream, or of adigitized (sampled and analog-to-digital converted) analog signal.

The term “scaling” generally refers to converting a design (schematicand layout) from one process technology to another process technologyand subsequently being reduced in layout area. The term “scaling”generally also refers to downsizing layout and devices within the sametechnology node. The term “scaling” may also refer to adjusting (e.g.,slowing down or speeding up—i.e. scaling down, or scaling uprespectively) of a signal frequency relative to another parameter, forexample, power supply level.

The terms “substantially,” “close,” “approximately,” “near,” and“about,” generally refer to being within +/−10% of a target value. Forexample, unless otherwise specified in the explicit context of theiruse, the terms “substantially equal,” “about equal” and “approximatelyequal” mean that there is no more than incidental variation betweenamong things so described. In the art, such variation is typically nomore than +/−10% of a predetermined target value.

Unless otherwise specified the use of the ordinal adjectives “first,”“second,” and “third,” etc., to describe a common object, merelyindicate that different instances of like objects are being referred to,and are not intended to imply that the objects so described must be in agiven sequence, either temporally, spatially, in ranking or in any othermanner.

For the purposes of the present disclosure, phrases “A and/or B” and “Aor B” mean (A), (B), or (A and B). For the purposes of the presentdisclosure, the phrase “A, B, and/or C” means (A), (B), (C), (A and B),(A and C), (B and C), or (A, B and C).

The terms “left,” “right,” “front,” “back,” “top,” “bottom.” “over,”“under,” and the like in the description and in the claims, if any, areused for descriptive purposes and not necessarily for describingpermanent relative positions. For example, the terms “over,” “under,”“front side,” “back side,” “top,” “bottom,” “over,” “under,” and “on” asused herein refer to a relative position of one component, structure, ormaterial with respect to other referenced components, structures ormaterials within a device, where such physical relationships arenoteworthy. These terms are employed herein for descriptive purposesonly and predominantly within the context of a device z-axis andtherefore may be relative to an orientation of a device. Hence, a firstmaterial “over” a second material in the context of a figure providedherein may also be “under” the second material if the device is orientedupside-down relative to the context of the figure provided. In thecontext of materials, one material disposed over or under another may bedirectly in contact or may have one or more intervening materials.Moreover, one material disposed between two materials may be directly incontact with the two layers or may have one or more intervening layers.In contrast, a first material “on” a second material is in directcontact with that second material. Similar distinctions are to be madein the context of component assemblies.

The term “between” may be employed in the context of the z-axis, x-axisor y-axis of a device. A material that is between two other materialsmay be in contact with one or both of those materials, or it may beseparated from both of the other two materials by one or moreintervening materials. A material “between” two other materials maytherefore be in contact with either of the other two materials, or itmay be coupled to the other two materials through an interveningmaterial. A device that is between two other devices may be directlyconnected to one or both of those devices, or it may be separated fromboth of the other two devices by one or more intervening devices.

Here, multiple non-silicon semiconductor material layers may be stackedwithin a single fin structure. The multiple non-silicon semiconductormaterial layers may include one or more “P-type” layers that aresuitable (e.g., offer higher hole mobility than silicon) for P-typetransistors. The multiple non-silicon semiconductor material layers mayfurther include one or more “N-type” layers that are suitable (e.g.,offer higher electron mobility than silicon) for N-type transistors. Themultiple non-silicon semiconductor material layers may further includeone or more intervening layers separating the N-type from the P-typelayers. The intervening layers may be at least partially sacrificial,for example to allow one or more of a gate, a source, or a drain to wrapcompletely around a channel region of one or more of the N-type andP-type transistors. The multiple non-silicon semiconductor materiallayers may be fabricated, at least in part, with self-aligned techniquessuch that a stacked CMOS device may include both a high-mobility N-typeand P-type transistor with a footprint of a single FET (field effecttransistor).

Here, the term “backend” generally refers to a section of a die which isopposite of a “frontend” and where an IC (integrated circuit) packagecouples to IC die bumps. For example, high-level metal layers (e.g.,metal layer 6 and above in a ten-metal stack die) and corresponding viasthat are closer to a die package are considered part of the backend ofthe die. Conversely, the term “front end” generally refers to a sectionof the die that includes the active region (e.g., where transistors arefabricated) and low-level metal layers and corresponding vias that arecloser to the active region (e.g., metal layer 5 and below in theten-metal stack die example).

It is pointed out that those elements of the figures having the samereference numbers (or names) as the elements of any other figure canoperate or function in any manner similar to that described, but are notlimited to such.

FIG. 1A illustrates a high-level endurance enhancement architecture 100for ferroelectric memory banks, in accordance with some embodiments.Architecture 100 comprises memory 101 and controller logic 102. Invarious embodiments, memory 101 is memory with non-linear polarmaterial. For example, memory 101 includes bit-cells that comprise atleast one transistor and at least one capacitor coupled to it, where thecapacitor has non-linear polar material. Examples of non-linear materialinclude ferroelectric (FE) material, paraelectric (PE) material, andnon-linear dielectric material.

In various embodiments, FE material can be any suitable low voltage FEmaterial that allows the FE material to switch its state by a lowvoltage (e.g., 100 mV). Threshold in FE material has a highly non-lineartransfer function in the polarization vs. voltage response. Thethreshold is related to a) non-linearity of switching transfer function,and b) the squareness of the FE switching. The non-linearity ofswitching transfer function is the width of the derivative of thepolarization vs. voltage plot. The squareness is defined by the ratio ofthe remnant polarization to the saturation polarization; perfectsquareness will show a value of 1.

The squareness of the FE switching can be suitably manipulated withchemical substitution. For example, in PbTiO3 a P-E(polarization-electric field) square loop can be modified by La or Nbsubstitution to create an S-shaped loop. The shape can be systematicallytuned to ultimately yield a non-linear dielectric. The squareness of theFE switching can also be changed by the granularity of an FE layer. Aperfectly epitaxial, single crystalline FE layer will show highersquareness (e.g., ratio is closer to 1) compared to a poly crystallineFE. This perfect epitaxial can be accomplished by the use of latticematched bottom and top electrodes. In one example, BiFeO (BFO) can beepitaxially synthesized using a lattice matched SrRuO3 bottom electrodeyielding P-E loops that are square. Progressive doping with La willreduce the squareness.

In some embodiments, FE material comprises a perovskite of the typeABO₃, where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are two cations of different sizes, and ‘O’ isoxygen which is an anion that bonds to both the cations. Generally, thesize of atoms of A is larger than the size of B atoms. In someembodiments, the perovskite can be doped (e.g., by La or Lanthanides).

In some embodiments, FE material is perovskite, which includes one ormore of: La, Sr, Co, Sr, Ru, Y, Ba, Cu, Bi, Ca, and Ni. For example,metallic perovskites such as: (La,Sr)CoO₃, SrRuO₃, (La,Sr)MnO₃,YBa₂Cu₃O₇, Bi₂Sr₂CaCu₂O₈, LaNiO₃, etc. may be used for FE material.Perovskites can be suitably doped to achieve a spontaneous distortion ina range of 0.3 to 2%. For example, for chemically substituted leadtitanate such as Zr in Ti site; La, Nb in Ti site, the concentration ofthese substitutes is such that it achieves the spontaneous distortion inthe range of 0.3-2%. For chemically substituted BiFeO3, BrCrO3, BuCoO3class of materials, La or rate earth substitution into the Bi site cantune the spontaneous distortion. In some embodiments, FE material iscontacted with a conductive metal oxide that includes one of theconducting perovskite metallic oxides exemplified by: La—Sr—CoO3,SrRuO3, La—Sr—MnO3, YBa2Cu3O7, Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8, and LaNiO3.

In some embodiments, FE material comprises a stack of layers includinglow voltage FE material between (or sandwiched between) conductiveoxides. In various embodiments, when FE material is a perovskite, theconductive oxides are of the type AA′BB′O₃. A′ is a dopant for atomicsite A, it can be an element from the Lanthanides series. B′ is a dopantfor atomic site B, it can be an element from the transition metalelements, especially Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn. A′ may havethe same valency of site A, with a different ferroelectricpolarizability. In various embodiments, when metallic perovskite is usedfor FE material, conductive oxides can include one or more of: IrO₂,RuO₂, PdO₂, OsO₂, or ReO₃. In some embodiments, the perovskite is dopedwith La or Lanthanides. In some embodiments, thin layer (e.g.,approximately 10 nm) perovskite template conductors such as SrRuO3coated on top of IrO2, RuO2, PdO2, PtO2, which have a non-perovskitestructure but higher conductivity to provide a seed or template for thegrowth of pure perovskite ferroelectric at low temperatures, are used asconductive oxides.

In some embodiments, ferroelectric materials are doped with s-orbitalmaterial (e.g., materials for first period, second period, and ionicthird and fourth periods). In some embodiments, f-orbital materials(e.g., lanthanides) are doped to the ferroelectric material to makeparaelectric material. Examples of room temperature paraelectricmaterials include: SrTiO3, Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.05, and y is0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O, La-substituted PbTiO3, PMN-PT based relaxorferroelectrics.

In some embodiments, FE material comprises one or more of: Hafnium (Hf),Zirconium (Zr), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), their oxides or theiralloyed oxides. In some embodiments, FE material includes one or moreof: Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)N or Al(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N,y doped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La,Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction. In some embodiments, FEmaterial includes one or more of: Bismuth ferrite (BFO), lead zirconatetitanate (PZT), BFO with doping material, or PZT with doping material,wherein the doping material is one of Nb or La; and relaxorferroelectrics such as PMN-PT.

In some embodiments, FE material includes Bismuth ferrite (BFO), BFOwith a doping material where in the doping material is one of Lanthanum,or any element from the lanthanide series of the periodic table. In someembodiments, FE material includes lead zirconium titanate (PZT), or PZTwith a doping material, wherein the doping material is one of La, Nb. Insome embodiments, FE material includes a relaxor ferro-electric includesone of lead magnesium niobate (PMN), lead magnesium niobate-leadtitanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT), leadscandium niobate (PSN), Barium Titanium-Bismuth Zinc Niobium Tantalum(BT-BZNT), Barium Titanium-Barium Strontium Titanium (BT-BST).

In some embodiments, FE material includes Hafnium oxides of the form,Hfl-x Ex Oy where E can be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr,Sn, or Y. In some embodiments, FE material includes Niobate typecompounds LiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum Oxy Fluoride, BariumStrontium Niobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassium strontiumniobate.

In some embodiments, FE material comprises multiple layers. For example,alternating layers of [Bi2O2]2+, and pseudo-perovskite blocks (Bi4Ti3O12and related Aurivillius phases), with perovskite layers that are noctahedral layers in thickness can be used. In some embodiments, FEmaterial comprises organic material. For example, Polyvinylidenefluoride or polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF).

In some embodiments, FE material comprises hexagonal ferroelectrics ofthe type h-RMnO3, where R is a rare earth element viz. cerium (Ce),dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium(Ho), lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr),promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium(Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and yttrium (Y). The ferroelectric phase ischaracterized by a buckling of the layered MnO5 polyhedra, accompaniedby displacements of the Y ions, which lead to a net electricpolarization. In some embodiments, hexagonal FE includes one of: YMnO3or LuFeO3. In various embodiments, when FE material comprises hexagonalferroelectrics, the conductive oxides are of A2O3 (e.g., In2O3, Fe2O3)and ABO3 type, where ‘A’ is a rare earth element and B is Mn.

In some embodiments, FE material comprises improper FE material. Animproper ferroelectric is a ferroelectric where the primary orderparameter is an order mechanism such as strain or buckling of the atomicorder. Examples of improper FE material are LuFeO3 class of materials orsuper lattice of ferroelectric and paraelectric materials PbTiO3 (PTO)and SnTiO3 (STO), respectively, and LaAlO3 (LAO) and STO, respectively.For example, a super lattice of [PTO/STO]n or [LAO/STO]n, where ‘n’ isbetween 1 to 100. While various embodiments here are described withreference to ferroelectric material for storing the charge state, theembodiments are also applicable for paraelectric material. For example,the capacitor of various embodiments can be formed using paraelectricmaterial instead of ferroelectric material.

While various embodiments here are described with reference toferroelectric material for storing the charge state, the embodiments arealso applicable for paraelectric material. For example, non-linearparaelectric material of various embodiments can be formed usingparaelectric material instead of ferroelectric material. In someembodiments, paraelectric material includes one of: SrTiO3,Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.5, and y is 0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O,La-substituted PbTiO3, or PMN-PT based relaxor ferroelectrics.

In some embodiments, FE memory 101 includes a plurality of memory banks(e.g., 103-1 through 103-N, where ‘N’ is a number). Each memory bank(e.g., 103-1) includes a plurality of memory words (e.g., memory word107). Each memory word includes a plurality of memory bit-cells. Forsimplicity sake, other memory components are not shown such as writedrivers, column multiplexers, sense-amplifiers, etc.

In various embodiments, controller logic 102 comprises endurancehardware and/or software to provide memory endurance to memory 101. Ingeneral, memory endurance is needed to ensure write and/or readoperations from memory 101 are reliable. Write endurance is a number ofprogram and erase cycles that applied to a memory block, bank, or wordbefore the memory block, bank, or word becomes unreliable. The endurancemechanisms of some embodiments include a wear leveling scheme that usesindex rotation, outlier compensation to handle weak bits, and randomswap injection to mitigate wear out attacks. For sake of simplicity,memory banks are generally referred by their reference 103 instead of aparticular memory bank reference (e.g., 103-1, 103-2, etc.). Embodimentsdescribed to the general reference are applicable to all particularreferences. For example, description for memory bank 103 is applicableto memory banks 103-1, 103-2, through 103-N.

In some embodiments, controller logic 102 comprises index rotation logic104 for implementing the wear leveling scheme. In some embodiments,index rotation logic 104 rotates the addresses throughout memory bank103 to perform a wear leveling function. In various embodiments, indexrotation logic 104 ensures that memory requests are spread across memorylocations rather than a single memory location.

In some embodiments, controller logic 102 includes random invertible bitmatrix 105 which is used to randomize the rotation of gap words inmemory bank 103. In some cases, malicious users (or attackers) may writeprograms that deliberately track the wear leveling scheme describedherein. These attackers may attempt to alter a memory reference patternto continue to stress a single physical line even as the wear levelingscheme assigns that physical line to different addresses. Someembodiments provide a facility to make tracking of the physical linesdifficult. This facility makes a random decision (e.g., using anexternally generated random number) to either swap or not each time aswap opportunity arises. Over time the randomness injected into theswapping process makes tracking cache lines more difficult. In someembodiments, random invertible bit matrix 105 enables random swapinjection which randomizes index rotation to obfuscate the mapping fromaddresses to rotated indexes.

In some embodiments, bit repair logic 106 includes double errorcorrecting, or triple error detecting error correction code (ECC) todiscover new bit errors and spare disable which eliminates memory wordswith particularly high error rates. Spare disable involves having abuffer of spare cache lines. When cache lines are particularlyunreliable, spare disable can swap out unreliable cache lines for thereliable spares. In some embodiments, the spares may be implemented witha memory technology other than FE memory such as static random-accessmemory (SRAM). In various embodiments, bit repair logic 106 addressesthe problem of weak memory bits. In some embodiments, each cache line orword 107 in memory bank 103 includes a valid bit. The valid bitindicates whether the data associated with that line/word is stored inthe memory or the redundant word array. The redundant word arraycomprises spares that can be used to compensate for defective words inmemory. When accessing memory, controller 102 checks the valid bit, ifthe valid bit is set then the data is stored in the redundant memoryrather than the memory array or bank 103. In various embodiments, ECC isused to identify and/or correct bit errors in both the memory array andthe redundant memory. As the ECC discovers bit errors, additional linesmay be marked valid and the data stored in the redundant memory locationrather than the memory. The various endurance mechanisms discussedherein can be used in any combination or order. Some memory products mayselect one or more of the endurance mechanisms instead of all threediscussed herein. Some memory products may apply all three endurancemechanisms to achieve most endurance for FE memory 101. These endurancemechanisms are applied to FE memory 101 to maximize usage of suchmemory.

FIG. 1B illustrates flowchart 140 of memory endurance for ferroelectricmemory banks, in accordance with some embodiments. While the blocks inflowchart 140 are illustrated in a particular order, the order can bemodified. For example, some blocks may be performed before others basedon whether read or write operations are being performed. As describedherein, the various blocks can be implemented in hardware, software, ora combination of them.

At block 141, controller 102 sends a memory request to memory 101. Thisrequest is may be a read request or a write request. If it's a writerequest, controller 102 applies the wear leveling scheme at block 142.In some embodiments, the wear leveling scheme is linear in that a gapword or gap cache line is swapped with an adjacent word or cache line.In some embodiments, wear leveling is dithered as indicated by block 142a. In one such embodiment, the index or pointer to gap word or gap cacheline is used to swap the gap word or gap cache line with either anadjacent cell with one higher index or address or with an adjacent cellwith one lower index or address. As such, wear leveling is dithered.

In some embodiments, wear leveling is randomized. In one suchembodiment, a random index is generated at block 142 b. This randomindex is then used to swap the gap word or gap cache line with anadjacent or a non-adjacent word or cache line. In some embodiments, therandom index is dithered. This dithered random index is then used forwear leveling.

In some embodiments, if the memory request is a read access (asindicated by block 145), outlier compensation is applied as indicated byblock 146. At block 146, controller 102 addresses the problem of weakmemory bits by checking a valid bit for the memory word being addressedor accessed. The valid bit indicates whether the data associated withthat line or word is stored in the memory or the redundant word array.The redundant word array comprises spares that can be used to compensatefor defective words in memory. When accessing memory, controller 102checks the valid bit, if the valid bit is set then the data is stored inthe redundant memory rather than the memory array or bank 103. Invarious embodiments, ECC is used to identify and/or correct bit errorsin both the memory array and the redundant memory. As the ECC discoversbit errors, additional lines may be marked valid and the data stored inthe redundant memory location rather than the memory. After ECC isapplied, the requested data is provided to controller 102.

FIG. 2A illustrates wear leveling scheme 200 (e.g., 104) for aferroelectric memory bank, in accordance with some embodiments. Thescheme is illustrated for one memory bank 103-1. Each memory bank 103includes a start pointer 201 and a gap pointer 202, in accordance withsome embodiments. In this example, there are seven words or cache-lines107 in memory bank 103. An addition address for a word is reserved for agap word having a gap pointer associated with it. The various snapshots(221, 222, 223, 228, 229) of memory bank 103-1 illustrate the rotationof gap pointer 202 relative to start pointer 201. In variousembodiments, start pointer 201 and gap pointer 202 are stored inregisters. In various embodiments, gap pointer 202 points to an emptyspace in a memory bank, and this empty space is used for completing theswapping process where a word or cache-line is swapped with another wordor cache-line.

The basic principle here is to ensure that memory requests are spreadacross memory locations rather than a single memory location.Conceptually, a memory with 1024 words with wear leveling will exhibit1024× the worst-case endurance of the same memory without wear leveling.The worst-case behavior being a repeated access to a single word. Invarious embodiments, a gap word (shaded word) is shifted through memorybank 103, swapped with an adjacent memory location or word once perinterval of time. After each swap, a single memory location has moved tothe adjacent memory location. In snapshot 221, the gap word is swappedwith adjacent word number 7. In snapshot 222, the gap word is swappedwith adjacent word number 6. In snapshot 223, the gap word is swappedwith adjacent word number 5. In snapshot 228, the gap word is swappedwith next adjacent word number 7, as the cycle of swapping restarts. Insnapshot 229, the gap word is swapped with the next adjacent word number6. Note, snap shots 221, 222, and 223 as shown have a start pointer ofvalue 0 while snap shots 228 and 229 as shown have a start pointer ofvalue 1.

A memory with N memory words will undergo a complete sweep (all memorylocations moved to the adjacent location) after N swaps. The term “swap”here generally refers to an interval in time that indicates the timebetween exchanging a single cache line with a gap cache line. Swaps willoccur once during a time interval, every T cache referenced, forexample. After N sweeps all memory locations will have been shiftedthroughout the cache and back to their original position. The term“sweep” here generally refers to an interval in time that indicates timeto move all cache lines over by 1. After N sweeps, a rotation iscomplete. The term “rotate” here generally refers to an interval in timewhich indicates a time to move each cache line through each physicallocation in the cache and return each cache line to its originalposition. The number of cache references between sweeps will be N*T. Forexample, the number of references between sweep is equal to a number ofwords (or cache lines) times the swap interval. The number of cachereferences between rotations will be N*N*T. For example, the number ofreferences between rotates is equal to the number of references betweensweeps times the number of words.

FIG. 2B illustrates flowchart 200 of memory endurance using wearleveling, in accordance with some embodiments. In some embodiments, atblock 241, upon receiving a memory write access, controller 102 performswear leveling. At block 242, the number of references (both write orread references) are counted and incremented by one. In someembodiments, a counter (e.g., a hardware or software counter) counts thenumber of references across memory bank 103 or cache. At block 243, adetermination is made whether the number of references is equal to ‘N’,where ‘N’ may represent number of words or cache-lines in memory bank103. If the number of references is not equal to N (e.g., number ofreferences is less than N) then the process proceeds to block 241 wherethe next memory bank reference increments the number of references. Oncethe number of references becomes equal to N (e.g., a threshold of 256),the counter that tracks the number of references is reset. As such, atblock 244, the number of references is set to zero. The next time thenumber of references is set to zero is when the counter counts to Nagain. At block 245, gap word is swapped with an adjacent word or cacheline, and data is written to the swapped word. As such, writing tomemory bank 103 is performed in different words instead of the same wordbecause after each swap, a single memory location has moved to theadjacent memory location. At block 246, the gap pointer is incrementedto allow the next write to memory bank 103 to be done on another swappedmemory word.

While the embodiments are illustrated with respect to incrementing thenumber of references using an up-counter, flowchart 200 can be modifiedto start the number of reference count at N and decrementing it down tozero and then presetting number of references to N once the number ofreferences reaches zero.

FIG. 3 illustrates pseudocode 300 for mapping an index to an indexrotated cache, in accordance with some embodiments. Pseudocode 300 showshow the gap pointer 202 is updated. FIG. 4 illustrates pseudocode 400for rotating the index, incrementing the gap pointer and start pointer,in accordance with some embodiments. Pseudocode 400 shows computation ofa new index reflective of start pointer 201 and gap pointer 202 give acurrent memory address index. In various embodiments, pseudocodes 300and 400 are implemented in a hardware description language (HDL) whichis synthesized in hardware form as part of controller 102. In someembodiments, the hardware can be controlled by firmware or software. Forexample, gap pointer 202 can be randomized using a random numbergenerator which may be a software (or hardware or a combination ofthem).

FIG. 5A illustrates outlier compensation scheme 500 (e.g., 106) for aferroelectric memory bank, in accordance with some embodiments. Invarious embodiments, outlier compensation scheme 500 addresses the issueof weak memory bits in memory bank 103. In various embodiments, eachcache line or word 107 in memory bank 103 includes a valid bit. Formemory bank 103, valid bits are shown as bits 507. In this example,cache line or word 508 has a valid bit set to 1 while other cache linesor words have their valid bits set to 0. The word with valid bit set to1 is marked as disabled because its data is invalid. The valid bitindicates whether the data associated with that cache line or word 107is stored in the memory or a redundant word array. Each valid bit has anassociated tag (or tags) 509 that correspond to redundant memory wordarray 510. The example here shows a 3-bit tag. However, the embodimentsare not limited to a 3-bit tag. Any number of bits may be used for thetag. Redundant word array 510 comprises spares that can be used tocompensate for defective words in memory bank 103. In some embodiments,redundant word array 510 takes a small memory area compared to entirememory 101. For example, spare buffers in redundant word array 510 thatcontain spare data or copies of data (or redundant data) use about 1% ofthe total memory array. In one instance, for highly associating memoryof 4 MB cache with 64K cache lines will have about 320 spares and willbe associative. Here it is assumed that the valid bit is set (e.g., tologic value 1) to indicate that the valid data can be found in theredundant word array rather than primary memory bank 103.

When accessing memory 101, controller 102 checks the valid bits 507. Invarious embodiments, all memory accesses go through the primary memoryarray (e.g., memory banks 103). If any of the valid is set then the datais stored in redundant memory array 510 rather than memory bank 103. Avalid bit set to 1 indicates that the corresponding cache line or word107 (here, 508) is disabled. As such, a second lookup is performed in aredundant array 510 to look for the data. In some embodiments, therequested address is looked up in redundant memory array 510 andcompared against tags 509 contained in redundant memory array 510. Thematching tag indicates the redundant memory location that holds the datawhich is to be retrieved. The data is then provided from the redundantmemory location in response to the memory access by controller 102.

In some embodiments, an ECC is used to identify and/or correct biterrors in both the memory array and the redundant memory. As the ECCcode discovers bit errors, additional cache lines 107 may be markedvalid and the data is stored in the redundant memory location (e.g.,array 510) rather than memory banks 103. These lines may be marked sothat they can be reintroduced into memory 103 at different times todiscover if they are transient or permanent bit errors. In someembodiments, redundant array 510 is of a different memory technologythan the primary memory (e.g., memory banks 103). For example, redundantarray 510 comprises static random-access memory (SRAM) while memorybanks 103 comprise ferroelectric or paraelectric memory. In someembodiments, the valid bits 507 are also of a different memorytechnology than the primary memory (e.g., memory banks 103). Forexample, the valid bits are stored in an SRAM.

FIG. 5B illustrates flowchart 540 of memory endurance using outliercompensation, in accordance with some embodiments. The various blocks ofthe flowchart may be performed by hardware, software, or a combinationof them. At block 541, controller 102 sends a read request to memory101. At block 542, controller 102 finds the memory word address inmemory bank 103 for the requested memory address, and then checks for acorresponding valid bit for that memory word. At block 543, controller102 determines whether the valid bit is set (e.g., set to logic value1). In the example of FIG. 5A, memory bank 103 has 8 words, where memorybank 103 is coupled with redundant word array 510 with 2 spare words. Inthis example, word number 4 is requested, an initial lookup in primarymemory 103 finds that the valid bit is set. This means that word number4 is disabled as indicated by the dashed pattern of work 508. Theredundant word is then looked up as indicated by block 544. For example,the redundant word array 504 is queried for word number 4 and a match isfound as spare data in array 510. The data contained in redundant wordarray 510 is then used as the substitute data as indicated by block 544.At block 545, the substitute data or spare is then corrected for anyerror. For example, ECC is applied to identify and/or correct biterrors. The corrected data is then forwarded to the requestor (e.g.,controller 102). In some embodiments, if the valid bit is not set (e.g.,it is set to logic value 0) for the memory address being requested forread, then the process proceeds to block 545 where ECC is applied to theretrieved data and the data is then retuned to memory controller 102.

FIG. 6A illustrates wear-out attack mitigation scheme 600 for aferroelectric memory bank, in accordance with some embodiments. In somecases, malicious users (attackers) may write programs that deliberatelytrack the linear wear leveling scheme described with reference to FIG.2A. These attackers attempt to alter the memory reference pattern tocontinue to stress a single physical line even as the wear levelingscheme assigns that physical line to different addresses. Someembodiments provide a facility to make tracking of the physical linesdifficult. This facility makes a random decision (using an externallygenerated random number, for example) to either swap or not each time aswap opportunity arises. Over time the randomness injected into theswapping process will make tracking cache lines more difficult.

FIG. 6A illustrates six snapshots (621, 622, 623, 624, 625, and 626) ofmemory bank 103-1 having eight words, where one word of cache line(shaded) is gap word with associated gap pointer 202. The figure showsthe impact of random swap injection on the ability of an attacker toidentify the physical location address under attack. The pattern words602 indicate the potential locations of a particular word or cache lineas sweeps are completed. The completion of each new sweep increases thenumber of possible locations by 1.

FIG. 6B illustrates flowchart 640 of memory endurance using random swapinjection for wear leveling, in accordance with some embodiments. Thevarious blocks of the flowchart may be performed by hardware, software,or a combination of them. At block 641, controller 102 sends a writememory request to memory bank 103.

At block 242, the number of references (both write or read references)are counted and incremented by one. In some embodiments, a counter(e.g., a hardware or software counter) counts the number of referencesacross memory bank 103 or cache. At block 243, a determination is madewhether the number of references is equal to ‘N’, where ‘N’ mayrepresent number of words or cache-lines in memory bank 103. If thenumber of references is not equal to N (e.g., number of references isless than N) then the process proceeds to block 241 where the nextmemory bank reference increments the number of references. Once thenumber of references becomes equal to N (e.g., a threshold of 256), thecounter that tracks the number of references is reset. As such, at block244, the number of references is set to zero. The next time the numberof references is set to zero is when the counter counts to N again.

At block 644, controller 102 generates a random number with is greateror equal to 0 and less or equal to 1. Any suitable random numbergenerator may be used by controller 102. At block 646, controller 102checks the random number. If the random number is below a threshold(e.g., 0.5), the process proceeds to block 647 where a swap is performedand the gap pointer is incremented. The threshold or probability can beother than 0.5, in accordance with some embodiments. In variousembodiments, the threshold is programmable by software and/or hardware.Upon performing the swap of word (as discussed with reference to FIG.2B), the gap pointer is incremented. If the random number is above thethreshold (e.g., 0.5) no swap is performed and the process proceeds toblock 641 where controller 102 waits for next write access to servicesthe next write operation.

FIG. 7 illustrates pseudocode 700 for random swap injection, inaccordance with embodiments. Pseudocode 700 is a modified version ofpseudocode 400. Here, the code snippet depicts the modified code forwear leveling after random swap injection is implemented. The mechanismrelies on an external source for random numbers between 0 and 1. If therandom number is below a threshold (e.g., 0.5), a swap is performed, ifthe number is above the threshold (e.g., 0.5) no swap is performed. Insome embodiments, pseudocode 700 is implemented in a hardwaredescription language (HDL) which is synthesized in hardware form as partof controller 102. In some embodiments, the hardware can be controlledby firmware or software. For example, gap pointer 202 can be randomizedusing a random number generator which may be a software (or hardware ora combination of them).

FIG. 8 illustrates a wear leveling scheme 800 where memory banks sharegap and start pointers, in accordance with some embodiments. In scheme800 some of all memory banks 103-1 through 103-N share start pointer 201and gap pointer 202. Each memory bank forms a memory region. In variousembodiments, multiple gaps (3 in the example) and swapping can be doneon the three gaps simultaneously in the case of a multi-banked or multiported memory. For example, memory word or cache-line swap(s) areperformed concurrently (or substantially concurrently) in the variousmemory banks. In some embodiments, multiple gaps (3 in the example) andswapping can be done on the three gaps in a round robin fashion. Forexample, memory word or cache-line swap(s) are performed in one memoryregion or bank and then the other. A multi-region or multi-bank wearleveling scheme reduces the average latency between sweeps and providesbetter wear leveling reducing the intensity of accesses to specificcache lines. Multi-region or multi-bank wear leveling can be implementedin two different ways. FIG. 8 illustrates the case that applies a singleset of start and gap pointers, 201 and 202, respectively. In this case,memory banks are split into even portions per bank and the gap and startpointers move in lock step through the memory banks.

FIG. 9 illustrates wear leveling scheme 900 where memory banks haveseparate gap and start pointers, in accordance with some embodiments.Compared to multi-bank wear leveling in FIG. 8 , here separate sets ofstart and pointers are used. For example, memory bank 103-1 uses startpointer 201-1 and gap pointer 202-1, memory bank 103-2 uses startpointer 201-2 and gap pointer 202-2, and memory bank 103-N uses startpointer 201-N and gap pointer 202-N. This allows the memory banks to usedifferent swap rates which help with obfuscating memory locations andallow higher swap rates in memory regions or banks where more memoryrequests are being served. In some embodiments, schemes 800 and 900 canbe combined. In some embodiments, the various wear leveling schemesdiscussed herein can be combined. For example, some sets of memory banksuse wear leveling with linear indexing, some sets of memory banks usewear leveling with random indexing, some set of memory banks use wearleveling with shared gap and start points, while some sets of memorybanks use wear leveling with separate gap and start pointers. FIGS. 8-9show a start pointer of value 0.

FIG. 10 illustrates flowchart 1000 of a wear leveling method where swapsare performed in a round robin manner, in accordance with someembodiments. The various blocks of the flowchart may be performed byhardware, software, or a combination of them. While the blocks ofoperation are shown in a particular order, the order can be modified.For example, some blocks can be performed simultaneously with otherblocks. In this example, memory 101 is divided into two regions or banksand swaps are performed in each region or bank in an alternating manner.

In some embodiments, at block 1021, upon receiving a memory writeaccess, controller 102 performs wear leveling. At block 1022, the numberof references (both write or read references) are counted andincremented by one. In some embodiments, a counter (e.g., a hardware orsoftware counter) counts the number of references across memory bank 103(e.g., 103-1) or cache. At block 1023, a determination is made whetherthe number of references is equal to ‘L’, where ‘L’ may represent number(e.g., 256) of words or cache-lines in memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-1). Ifthe number of references is not equal to L (e.g., number of referencesis less than L) then the process proceeds to block 1026. At block 1024,gap word is swapped with an adjacent word or cache line, and data iswritten to the swapped word. As such, writing to memory bank 103 (e.g.,103-1) is performed in different words instead of the same word becauseafter each swap, a single memory location has moved to the adjacentmemory location. At block 1025, the gap pointer is incremented to allowthe next write to memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-1) to be done on anotherswapped memory word. The process them proceeds to block 1021.

As discussed herein if the number of references is not equal to L (e.g.,number of references is less than L) then the process proceeds to block1026 where the next memory bank reference increments the number ofreferences. At block 1026, a determination is made whether the number ofreferences is equal to ‘M’, where ‘M’ may represent number (e.g., 512)of words or cache-lines in memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-2). If the numberof references is not equal to M (e.g., number of references is less thanM) then the process proceeds to block 1021 where the next memory bankreference increments the number of references. At block 1027, gap wordis swapped with an adjacent word or cache line, and data is written tothe swapped word. As such, writing to memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-2) isperformed in different words instead of the same word because after eachswap, a single memory location has moved to the adjacent memorylocation. At block 1026, the gap pointer is incremented to allow thenext write to memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-2) to be done on anotherswapped memory word. After incrementing the gap pointer, the counterthat tracks the number of references is reset. As such, at block 1029,the number of references is set to zero.

While the embodiments are illustrated with respect to incrementing thenumber of references using an up-counter, flowchart 1000 can be modifiedto start the number of reference count at L or M and decrementing itdown to zero and then presetting number of references to L or M once thenumber of references reaches zero. While the embodiments here show 2regions, the number of regions can be more than 2 and flowcharts can beexpanded to those memory regions.

FIG. 11 illustrates flowchart 1100 of a wear leveling method wherememory is divided into regions (e.g., banks) and a region selectorselects a region where memory words or cache-lines are swapped, inaccordance with some embodiments. The various blocks of flowchart 1100may be performed by hardware, software, or a combination of them. Whilethe blocks of operation are shown in a particular order, the order canbe modified. For example, some blocks can be performed simultaneouslywith other blocks. In this example, memory 101 is divided into tworegions or banks and a region selector selects a region where memorywords or cache-lines are swapped.

In some embodiments, at block 1121, upon receiving a memory writeaccess, controller 102 performs wear leveling. At block 1122, the numberof references (both write or read references) are counted andincremented by one. In some embodiments, a counter (e.g., a hardware orsoftware counter) counts the number of references across memory bank 103(e.g., 103-1) or cache. At block 1123, a determination is made whetherthe number of references is equal to ‘L’, where ‘L’ may represent number(e.g., 256) of words or cache-lines in memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-1). Ifthe number of references is not equal to L (e.g., number of referencesis less than L) then the process proceeds to block 1121, and the numberof references is incremented upon a next memory request. At block 1124,a region selector (e.g., logic in controller 102) selects a region ofmemory 101 where memory words or cache-lines are swapped (e.g., linearlyor randomly).

If the region selector selects region 1 (e.g., bank 1 or 103-1) then atblock 1125, gap word is swapped with an adjacent word or cache line, anddata is written to the swapped word. At block 1126, the gap pointer isincremented to allow the next write to memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-1) tobe done on another swapped memory word. The process them proceeds toblock 1129. After incrementing the gap pointer, the counter that tracksthe number of references is reset. As such, at block 1129, the number ofreferences is set to zero. While the embodiments are illustrated withrespect to incrementing the number of references using an up-counter,flowchart 1100 can be modified to start the number of reference count atL and decrementing it down to zero and then presetting number ofreferences to L once the number of references reaches zero.

If the region selector selects region 2 (e.g., bank 2 or 103-2) then atblock 1127, gap word is swapped with an adjacent word or cache line, anddata is written to the swapped word. At block 1128, the gap pointer isincremented to allow the next write to memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-2) tobe done on another swapped memory word. The process them proceeds toblock 1129. After incrementing the gap pointer, the counter that tracksthe number of references is reset as indicated by block 1129.

In some embodiments, the region selector might choose to allocate moreswaps to a region that is accessed more heavily and might make thisdetermination in a variety of ways. This implementation may use two setsof start gap pointers to allow different swap rates in the two regionsas discussed with reference to FIG. 10 .

FIG. 12 illustrates wear leveling scheme 1200 where multiple remappingalgorithms are layered over each other, in accordance with someembodiments. In some embodiments, each gap will use a separate gap andstart pointer. In some embodiments, multi-region wear leveling are usedon top of a single region wear leveling scheme. Each wear levelingscheme uses swaps with the gap and start pointers associated with thatregion. For example, region 2 1201 uses start pointer 201-a and gappointer 202-a, while region 3 uses start pointer 201-b and gap pointer202-b.

In some embodiments, swaps are applied in a round robin fashion or usinganother algorithm. FIG. 12 shows a 2-level implementation of thisalgorithm. Here, the level 1 wear leveling rotates cache linesthroughout the entire memory while the level 2 wear leveling isregion-based with 2 regions. Cache lines within these regions areswapped with other cache lines in the same region. In thisimplementation, three additional cache lines are used as gap lines, oneadditional line is used for the level 1 wear leveling, which containsregion 1. Two additional lines are used for the level 2 wear leveling,which uses 2 gaps, one each for region 2 and region 3.

Swaps are allocated to the 3 regions independently, with the regionselector choosing between regions 2 and 3 in level 2 and region 1 inlevel 1. Again, different algorithms might be used to choose whichregions should be swapped. Half the swaps might be allocated to regions3 and 2 depending on which regions is more heavily accessed as discussedabove and the remaining 50% of the swaps might be allocated to region 1to ensure that wear leveling is performed across the entire cache ratherthan in a single region.

FIG. 13 illustrates flowchart 1300 of wear leveling scheme 1200 wheremultiple remapping algorithms are layered over each other, in accordancewith some embodiments. The various blocks of flowchart 1300 may beperformed by hardware, software, or a combination of them. While theblocks of operation are shown in a particular order, the order can bemodified. For example, some blocks can be performed simultaneously withother blocks. In this example, memory 101 is divided into three regionsor banks and a region selector selects a region where memory words orcache-lines are swapped. Flowchart 1300 is similar to flowchart 1100 butfor additional block 1227 and 1228.

Swaps are allocated to the 3 regions independently, with the regionselector choosing at block 1124 between regions 2 and 3 in level 2 andregion 1 in level 1. In some embodiments, different algorithms might beused to choose which regions should be swapped. Half the swaps might beallocated to regions 3 and 2 depending on which regions is more heavilyaccessed as discussed above and the remaining 50% of the swaps might beallocated to region 1 to ensure that wear leveling is performed acrossthe entire cache rather than in a single region. If the region selectorselects region 3 (e.g., bank 3 or 103-3) then at block 1327, gap word isswapped with an adjacent word or cache line, and data is written to theswapped word. At block 1328, the gap pointer is incremented to allow thenext write to memory bank 103 (e.g., 103-3) to be done on anotherswapped memory word. The process them proceeds to block 1129. Afterincrementing the gap pointer, the counter that tracks the number ofreferences is reset as indicated by block 1129. While the embodimentshere show 3 regions, the number of regions can be more than 3 andflowcharts can be expanded to those memory regions.

FIG. 14 illustrates a system-on-chip (SOC) that uses ferroelectricmemory with endurance enhancement, in accordance with some embodiments.SOC 1400 comprises memory 1401 having static random-access memory (SRAM)or FE based random access memory FE-RAM, or any other suitable memory.The memory can be non-volatile (NV) or volatile memory. Memory 1401 mayalso comprise logic 1403 to control memory 1402. For example, write andread drivers are part of logic 1403. In various embodiments, theendurance mechanisms are applicable to the memories of any of the blocksdescribed here.

SOC further comprises a memory I/O (input-output) interface 1404. Theinterface may be double-data rate (DDR) compliant interface or any othersuitable interface to communicate with a processor. Processor 1405 ofSOC 1400 can be a single core or multiple core processor. Processor 1405can be a general-purpose processor (CPU), a digital signal processor(DSP), graphics processor, or an Application Specific Integrated Circuit(ASIC) processor. In some embodiments, processor 1405 is an artificialintelligence (AI) processor (e.g., a dedicated AI processor, a graphicsprocessor configured as an AI processor). In various embodiments,processor 1405 is a processor circuitry which is to execute one or moreinstructions.

AI is a broad area of hardware and software computations where data isanalyzed, classified, and then a decision is made regarding the data.For example, a model describing classification of data for a certainproperty or properties is trained over time with large amounts of data.The process of training a model requires large amounts of data andprocessing power to analyze the data. When a model is trained, weightsor weight factors are modified based on outputs of the model. Onceweights for a model are computed to a high confidence level (e.g., 95%or more) by repeatedly analyzing data and modifying weights to get theexpected results, the model is deemed “trained.” This trained model withfixed weights is then used to make decisions about new data. Training amodel and then applying the trained model for new data is hardwareintensive activity. In some embodiments, AI processor 1405 has reducedlatency of computing the training model and using the training model,which reduces the power consumption of such AI processor systems.

Processor 1405 may be coupled to a number of other chip-lets that can beon the same die as SOC 1400 or on separate dies. These chip-lets includeconnectivity circuitry 1406, I/O controller 1407, power management 1408,and display system 1409, and peripheral connectivity 1410.

Connectivity 1406 represents hardware devices and software componentsfor communicating with other devices. Connectivity 1406 may supportvarious connectivity circuitries and standards. For example,connectivity 1406 may support GSM (global system for mobilecommunications) or variations or derivatives, CDMA (code divisionmultiple access) or variations or derivatives, TDM (time divisionmultiplexing) or variations or derivatives, 3rd Generation PartnershipProject (3GPP) Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS) systemor variations or derivatives, 3GPP Long-Term Evolution (LTE) system orvariations or derivatives, 3GPP LTE-Advanced (LTE-A) system orvariations or derivatives, Fifth Generation (5G) wireless system orvariations or derivatives, 5G mobile networks system or variations orderivatives, 5G New Radio (NR) system or variations or derivatives, orother cellular service standards. In some embodiments, connectivity 1406may support non-cellular standards such as WiFi.

I/O controller 1407 represents hardware devices and software componentsrelated to interaction with a user. I/O controller 1407 is operable tomanage hardware that is part of an audio subsystem and/or displaysubsystem. For example, input through a microphone or other audio devicecan provide input or commands for one or more applications or functionsof SOC 1400. In some embodiments, I/O controller 1407 illustrates aconnection point for additional devices that connect to SOC 1400 throughwhich a user might interact with the system. For example, devices thatcan be attached to the SOC 1400 might include microphone devices,speaker or stereo systems, video systems or other display devices,keyboard or keypad devices, or other I/O devices for use with specificapplications such as card readers or other devices.

Power management 1408 represents hardware or software that perform powermanagement operations, e.g., based at least in part on receivingmeasurements from power measurement circuitries, temperature measurementcircuitries, charge level of battery, and/or any other appropriateinformation that may be used for power management. By using majority andthreshold gates of various embodiments, non-volatility is achieved atthe output of these logic. Power management 1408 may accordingly putsuch logic into low power state without the worry of losing data. Powermanagement may select a power state according to Advanced Configurationand Power Interface (ACPI) specification for one or all components ofSOC 1400.

Display system 1409 represents hardware (e.g., display devices) andsoftware (e.g., drivers) components that provide a visual and/or tactiledisplay for a user to interact with the processor 1405. In someembodiments, display system 1409 includes a touch screen (or touch pad)device that provides both output and input to a user. Display system1409 may include a display interface, which includes the particularscreen or hardware device used to provide a display to a user. In someembodiments, the display interface includes logic separate fromprocessor 1405 to perform at least some processing related to thedisplay.

Peripheral connectivity 1410 may represent hardware devices and/orsoftware devices for connecting to peripheral devices such as printers,chargers, cameras, etc. Peripheral connectivity 1410 may supportcommunication protocols, e.g., PCIe (Peripheral Component InterconnectExpress), USB (Universal Serial Bus), Thunderbolt, High DefinitionMultimedia Interface (HDMI), Firewire, etc.

Reference in the specification to “an embodiment,” “one embodiment,”“some embodiments,” or “other embodiments” means that a particularfeature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with theembodiments is included in at least some embodiments, but notnecessarily all embodiments. The various appearances of “an embodiment,”“one embodiment,” or “some embodiments” are not necessarily allreferring to the same embodiments. If the specification states acomponent, feature, structure, or characteristic “may,” “might,” or“could” be included, that particular component, feature, structure, orcharacteristic is not required to be included. If the specification orclaim refers to “a” or “an” element, that does not mean there is onlyone of the elements. If the specification or claims refer to “anadditional” element, that does not preclude there being more than one ofthe additional elements.

Furthermore, the particular features, structures, functions, orcharacteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or moreembodiments. For example, a first embodiment may be combined with asecond embodiment anywhere the particular features, structures,functions, or characteristics associated with the two embodiments arenot mutually exclusive.

While the disclosure has been described in conjunction with specificembodiments thereof, many alternatives, modifications and variations ofsuch embodiments will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the artin light of the foregoing description. The embodiments of the disclosureare intended to embrace all such alternatives, modifications, andvariations as to fall within the broad scope of the appended claims.

In addition, well-known power/ground connections to integrated circuit(IC) chips and other components may or may not be shown within thepresented figures, for simplicity of illustration and discussion, and soas not to obscure the disclosure. Further, arrangements may be shown inblock diagram form in order to avoid obscuring the disclosure, and alsoin view of the fact that specifics with respect to implementation ofsuch block diagram arrangements are highly dependent upon the platformwithin which the present disclosure is to be implemented (i.e., suchspecifics should be well within purview of one skilled in the art).Where specific details (e.g., circuits) are set forth in order todescribe example embodiments of the disclosure, it should be apparent toone skilled in the art that the disclosure can be practiced without, orwith variation of, these specific details. The description is thus to beregarded as illustrative instead of limiting.

Following examples are provided that illustrate the various embodiments.The examples can be combined with other examples. As such, variousembodiments can be combined with other embodiments without changing thescope of the invention.

Example 1: An apparatus comprising: a memory organized in a plurality ofmemory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a non-volatilematerial to store data, wherein the non-volatile material includes oneof: non-linear polar material, a magnet, or a resistive material; and amemory controller coupled to the memory, wherein the memory controllerincludes one or more circuitries configured to improve memory enduranceof the memory via wear leveling, wherein the wear leveling is appliedduring read or write operations to the memory.

Example 2: The apparatus of example 1, wherein an individual memory bankof the plurality of memory banks includes N cache lines or words and agap word.

Example 3: The apparatus of example 2, wherein the memory controller isto request a write to an address of the individual memory bank, whereinthe request is a reference to the individual memory bank, wherein anumber of references is incremented by one upon a request.

Example 4: The apparatus of example 3, wherein the memory controllercompares the number of references with a threshold.

Example 5: The apparatus of example 4, wherein the memory controller isto reset the number of references if the number of references is equalto the threshold.

Example 6: The apparatus of example 5, wherein the one or morecircuitries are configured to swap the gap word with an adjacent cacheline or word in response to the number of references is equal to thethreshold.

Example 7: The apparatus of example 6, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the one or more circuitries is toincrement the gap pointer after the swap.

Example 8: The apparatus of example 1, wherein the non-volatile materialincludes a non-linear polar material, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.

Example 9: The apparatus of example 8, wherein the ferroelectricmaterial includes one of: bismuth ferrite (BFO), BFO with a dopingmaterial wherein the doping material is one of Lanthanum, or elementsfrom lanthanide series of periodic table; lead zirconium titanate (PZT),or PZT with a doping material, wherein the doping material is one of La,Nb; relaxor ferroelectric which includes one of lead magnesium niobate(PMN), lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanumzirconate titanate (PLZT), lead scandium niobate (PSN), BariumTitanium-Bismuth Zinc Niobium Tantalum (BT-BZNT), or BariumTitanium-Barium Strontium Titanium (BT-BST); perovskite includes one of:BaTiO3, PbTiO3, KNbO3, or NaTaO3; hexagonal ferroelectric includes oneof: YMnO3, or LuFeO3; hexagonal ferroelectrics of a type h-RMnO3, whereR is a rare earth element which includes one of: cerium (Ce), dysprosium(Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho),lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr),promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium(Tm), ytterbium (Yb), or yttrium (Y); hafnium (Hf), Zirconium (Zr),Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), their oxides or their alloyed oxides;hafnium oxides as Hfl-x Ex Oy, where E can be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd,Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y; Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)Nor Al(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N, y doped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca,Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction;niobate type compounds LiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum OxyFluoride, Barium Strontium Niobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassiumstrontium niobate; or improper ferroelectric includes one of: [PTO/STO]nor [LAO/STO]n, where ‘n’ is between 1 to 100.

Example 10: The apparatus of example 8, wherein the paraelectricmaterial includes one of: SrTiO3, Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.5, and yis 0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O, La-substituted PbTiO3, or PMN-PT basedrelaxor ferroelectrics.

Example 11: The apparatus of example 1, wherein the wear levelingincludes a random wear leveling scheme.

Example 12: The apparatus of example 1, wherein the memory controller isto apply an outlier compensation scheme before or after the wearleveling.

Example 13: The apparatus of example 1, wherein the memory controller isto refresh the non-volatile material.

Example 14: A method to improve memory endurance of the memory via wearleveling, the method comprising: requesting a write to an address of anindividual memory bank, wherein the individual memory bank is part of aplurality of memory banks comprising memory bit cells, wherein anindividual memory bit-cell includes a capacitor comprising non-linearpolar material, wherein the request is a reference to the individualmemory bank, wherein an individual memory bank of the plurality ofmemory banks includes N cache lines or words and a gap word;incrementing a number of references by one upon the requesting;comparing the number of references with a threshold; and swapping thegap word with an adjacent cache line or word in response to the numberof references is equal to the threshold.

Example 15: The method of example 14 comprising resetting the number ofreferences if the number of references is equal to the threshold.

Example 16: The method of example 15, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the method comprising incrementing thegap pointer after the swapping.

Example 17: The method of example 14, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.

Example 18: The method of example 17, wherein the ferroelectric materialincludes one of: bismuth ferrite (BFO), BFO with a doping materialwherein the doping material is one of Lanthanum, or elements fromlanthanide series of periodic table; lead zirconium titanate (PZT), orPZT with a doping material, wherein the doping material is one of La,Nb; relaxor ferroelectric which includes one of lead magnesium niobate(PMN), lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanumzirconate titanate (PLZT), lead scandium niobate (PSN), BariumTitanium-Bismuth Zinc Niobium Tantalum (BT-BZNT), or BariumTitanium-Barium Strontium Titanium (BT-BST); perovskite includes one of:BaTiO3, PbTiO3, KNbO3, or NaTaO3; hexagonal ferroelectric includes oneof: YMnO3, or LuFeO3; hexagonal ferroelectrics of a type h-RMnO3, whereR is a rare earth element which includes one of: cerium (Ce), dysprosium(Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho),lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr),promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium(Tm), ytterbium (Yb), or yttrium (Y); hafnium (Hf), Zirconium (Zr),Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), their oxides or their alloyed oxides;hafnium oxides as Hfl-x Ex Oy, where E can be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd,Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y; Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)Nor Al(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N, y doped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca,Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction;niobate type compounds LiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum OxyFluoride, Barium Strontium Niobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassiumstrontium niobate; or improper ferroelectric includes one of: [PTO/STO]nor [LAO/STO]n, where ‘n’ is between 1 to 100.

Example 19: The method of example 17, wherein the paraelectric materialincludes one of: SrTiO3, Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.5, and y is0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O, La-substituted PbTiO3, or PMN-PT based relaxorferroelectrics.

Example 20: A system comprising: a memory organized in a plurality ofmemory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a capacitorcomprising non-linear polar material; a processor circuitry coupled tothe memory; a memory controller coupled to the memory and the processorcircuitry, wherein the memory controller includes one or morecircuitries configured to improve memory endurance of the memory viawear leveling; and a communication interface to allow the processorcircuitry to communicate with another device.

Example 21: The system of example 20, wherein an individual memory bankof the plurality of memory banks includes N cache lines or words and agap word.

Example 22: The system of example 21, wherein the memory controller isto: request a write to an address of the individual memory bank, whereinthe request is a reference to the individual memory bank, wherein anumber of references is incremented by one upon a request; compares thenumber of references with a threshold; reset the number of references ifthe number of references is equal to the threshold; and swap the gapword with an adjacent cache line or word in response to the number ofreferences is equal to the threshold.

Example 23: The system of example 22, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the one or more circuitries is toincrement the gap pointer after the swap, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.

Example 1a: An apparatus comprising: a memory organized in a pluralityof memory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a capacitorcomprising non-linear polar material; and a memory controller coupled tothe memory, wherein the memory controller includes one or morecircuitries configured to improve memory endurance of the memory viawear leveling with random indexing.

Example 2a: The apparatus of example 1a, wherein the memory controlleris to request a write to an address of the individual memory bank,wherein the request is a reference to the individual memory bank,wherein a number of references is incremented by one upon a request.

Example 3a: The apparatus of example 2a, wherein the memory controllercompares the number of references with a threshold.

Example 4a: The apparatus of example 3a, wherein the memory controlleris to reset the number of references if the number of references isequal to the threshold.

Example 5a: The apparatus of example 4a, wherein an individual memorybank of the plurality of memory banks includes N cache lines or wordsand a gap word.

Example 6a: The apparatus of example 5a, wherein the one or morecircuitries are configured to swap the gap word with a cache line orword after it is determined that the number of references is equal tothe threshold.

Example 7a: The apparatus of example 6a comprises a random numbergenerator to generate a random number between 0 and 1 for randomindexing.

Example 8a: The apparatus of example 7a, wherein the one or morecircuitries are configured to swap the gap word with a cache line orword in response to the request and based on the random number beingless than 0.5.

Example 9a: The apparatus of example 8a, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the one or more circuitries is toincrement the gap pointer after the swap.

Example 10a: The apparatus of example 1a, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.

Example 11a: The apparatus of example 10a, wherein the ferroelectricmaterial includes one of: bismuth ferrite (BFO), BFO with a dopingmaterial wherein the doping material is one of Lanthanum, or elementsfrom lanthanide series of periodic table; lead zirconium titanate (PZT),or PZT with a doping material, wherein the doping material is one of La,Nb; relaxor ferroelectric which includes one of lead magnesium niobate(PMN), lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanumzirconate titanate (PLZT), lead scandium niobate (PSN), BariumTitanium-Bismuth Zinc Niobium Tantalum (BT-BZNT), or BariumTitanium-Barium Strontium Titanium (BT-BST); perovskite includes one of:BaTiO3, PbTiO3, KNbO3, or NaTaO3; hexagonal ferroelectric includes oneof: YMnO3, or LuFeO3; hexagonal ferroelectrics of a type h-RMnO3, whereR is a rare earth element which includes one of: cerium (Ce), dysprosium(Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho),lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr),promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium(Tm), ytterbium (Yb), or yttrium (Y); hafnium (Hf), Zirconium (Zr),Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), their oxides or their alloyed oxides;hafnium oxides as Hfl-x Ex Oy, where E can be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd,Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y; Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)Nor Al(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N, y doped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca,Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction;niobate type compounds LiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum OxyFluoride, Barium Strontium Niobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassiumstrontium niobate; or improper ferroelectric includes one of: [PTO/STO]nor [LAO/STO]n, where ‘n’ is between 1 to 100.

Example 12a: The apparatus of example 10a, wherein the paraelectricmaterial includes one of: SrTiO3, Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.5, and yis 0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O, La-substituted PbTiO3, or PMN-PT basedrelaxor ferroelectrics.

Example 13a: A method to improve memory endurance, the methodcomprising: requesting a write to an address of an individual memorybank, wherein the individual memory bank is part of a plurality ofmemory banks comprising memory bit cells, wherein an individual memorybit-cell includes a capacitor comprising non-linear polar material,wherein the request is a reference to the individual memory bank,wherein an individual memory bank of the plurality of memory banksincludes N cache lines or words and a gap word; incrementing a number ofreferences by one upon the requesting; comparing the number ofreferences with a threshold; generating a random number between zero andone in response to the comparing indicating that the number ofreferences is equal to the threshold; and applying the random number toswap the gap word with a cache line or word.

Example 14a: The method of example 13a comprising resetting the numberof references if the number of references is equal to the threshold.

Example 15a: The method of example 13a, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the method comprising incrementing thegap pointer after the swapping.

Example 16a: The method of example 13a, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.

Example 17a: The method of example 16a, wherein the ferroelectricmaterial includes one of: bismuth ferrite (BFO), BFO with a dopingmaterial wherein the doping material is one of Lanthanum, or elementsfrom lanthanide series of periodic table; lead zirconium titanate (PZT),or PZT with a doping material, wherein the doping material is one of La,Nb; relaxor ferroelectric which includes one of lead magnesium niobate(PMN), lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanumzirconate titanate (PLZT), lead scandium niobate (PSN), BariumTitanium-Bismuth Zinc Niobium Tantalum (BT-BZNT), or BariumTitanium-Barium Strontium Titanium (BT-BST); perovskite includes one of:BaTiO3, PbTiO3, KNbO3, or NaTaO3; hexagonal ferroelectric includes oneof: YMnO3, or LuFeO3; hexagonal ferroelectrics of a type h-RMnO3, whereR is a rare earth element which includes one of: cerium (Ce), dysprosium(Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho),lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr),promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium(Tm), ytterbium (Yb), or yttrium (Y); hafnium (Hf), Zirconium (Zr),Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), their oxides or their alloyed oxides;hafnium oxides as Hfl-x Ex Oy, where E can be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd,Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y; Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)Nor Al(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N, y doped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca,Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction;niobate type compounds LiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum OxyFluoride, Barium Strontium Niobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassiumstrontium niobate; or improper ferroelectric includes one of: [PTO/STO]nor [LAO/STO]n, where ‘n’ is between 1 to 100.

Example 18a: The apparatus of example 16a, wherein the paraelectricmaterial includes one of: SrTiO3, Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.5, and yis 0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O, La-substituted PbTiO3, or PMN-PT basedrelaxor ferroelectrics.

Example 19a: A system comprising: a memory organized in a plurality ofmemory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a capacitorcomprising non-linear polar material; a processor circuitry coupled tothe memory; a memory controller coupled to the memory and the processorcircuitry, wherein the memory controller is to improve memory enduranceof the memory via wear leveling with random indexing; and acommunication interface to allow the processor circuitry to communicatewith another device.

Example 20a: The system of example 19a, wherein the memory controller isto request a write to an address of the individual memory bank, whereinthe request is a reference to the individual memory bank, wherein anumber of references is incremented by one upon a request; compare thenumber of references with a threshold; reset the number of references ifthe number of references is equal to the threshold, wherein anindividual memory bank of the plurality of memory banks includes N cachelines or words and a gap word; generate a random number between 0 and 1for random indexing; and swap the gap word with a cache line or word inresponse to the request and based on the random number being less than0.5.

Example 1b: An apparatus comprising: a memory organized in a pluralityof memory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a capacitorcomprising non-linear polar material, wherein an individual memory bankhas an associated valid bit; and a memory controller coupled to thememory, wherein the memory controller includes one or more circuitriesconfigured to improve memory endurance of the memory according to avalue of the valid bit.

Example 2b: The apparatus of example 1b, wherein the memory controlleris to read the value of the valid bit for a cache line or word of theindividual memory bank.

Example 3b: The apparatus of example 2b, wherein the memory controlleris to lookup a redundant memory for data if the value of the valid bitindicates it is set.

Example 4b: The apparatus of example 3b, wherein the memory controlleris to apply an error correction code to the data from the redundantmemory if the value of the valid bit indicates it is set.

Example 5b: The apparatus of example 1b, wherein the valid bit is storedin a SRAM.

Example 6b: The apparatus of example 3b, wherein the redundant memorycomprises SRAM.

Example 7b: The apparatus of example 1b, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.

Example 8b: The apparatus of example 7b, wherein the ferroelectricmaterial includes one of: bismuth ferrite (BFO), BFO with a dopingmaterial wherein the doping material is one of Lanthanum, or elementsfrom lanthanide series of periodic table; lead zirconium titanate (PZT),or PZT with a doping material, wherein the doping material is one of La,Nb; relaxor ferroelectric which includes one of lead magnesium niobate(PMN), lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanumzirconate titanate (PLZT), lead scandium niobate (PSN), BariumTitanium-Bismuth Zinc Niobium Tantalum (BT-BZNT), or BariumTitanium-Barium Strontium Titanium (BT-BST); perovskite includes one of:BaTiO3, PbTiO3, KNbO3, or NaTaO3; hexagonal ferroelectric includes oneof: YMnO3, or LuFeO3; hexagonal ferroelectrics of a type h-RMnO3, whereR is a rare earth element which includes one of: cerium (Ce), dysprosium(Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho),lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr),promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium(Tm), ytterbium (Yb), or yttrium (Y); hafnium (Hf), Zirconium (Zr),Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), their oxides or their alloyed oxides;hafnium oxides as Hfl-x Ex Oy, where E can be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd,Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y; Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)Nor Al(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N, y doped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca,Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction;niobate type compounds LiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum OxyFluoride, Barium Strontium Niobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassiumstrontium niobate; or improper ferroelectric includes one of: [PTO/STO]nor [LAO/STO]n, where ‘n’ is between 1 to 100.

Example 9b: The apparatus of example 7b, wherein the paraelectricmaterial includes one of: SrTiO3, Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.5, and yis 0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O, La-substituted PbTiO3, or PMN-PT basedrelaxor ferroelectrics.

Example 10b: A method to improve memory endurance of the memory, themethod comprising: requesting a write to an address of an individualmemory bank, wherein the individual memory bank is part of a pluralityof memory banks comprising memory bit cells, wherein an individualmemory bit-cell includes a capacitor comprising non-linear polarmaterial, wherein the request is a reference to the individual memorybank, wherein an individual memory bank of the plurality of memory banksincludes N cache lines or words; reading a value of a valid bit for acache line or word from among the N cache lines or words; looking up aredundant memory for data if the value of the valid bit indicates it isset; and applying an error correction code to the data from theredundant memory if the value of the valid bit indicates it is set.

Example 11b: The method of example 10b, wherein the valid bit is storedin a SRAM.

Example 12b: The method of example 10b wherein the redundant memorycomprises SRAM.

Example 13b: The method of example 10b, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.

Example 14b: The method of example 13b, wherein the ferroelectricmaterial includes one of: bismuth ferrite (BFO), BFO with a dopingmaterial wherein the doping material is one of Lanthanum, or elementsfrom lanthanide series of periodic table; lead zirconium titanate (PZT),or PZT with a doping material, wherein the doping material is one of La,Nb; relaxor ferroelectric which includes one of lead magnesium niobate(PMN), lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanumzirconate titanate (PLZT), lead scandium niobate (PSN), BariumTitanium-Bismuth Zinc Niobium Tantalum (BT-BZNT), or BariumTitanium-Barium Strontium Titanium (BT-BST); perovskite includes one of:BaTiO3, PbTiO3, KNbO3, or NaTaO3; hexagonal ferroelectric includes oneof: YMnO3, or LuFeO3; hexagonal ferroelectrics of a type h-RMnO3, whereR is a rare earth element which includes one of: cerium (Ce), dysprosium(Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho),lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr),promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium(Tm), ytterbium (Yb), or yttrium (Y); hafnium (Hf), Zirconium (Zr),Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), their oxides or their alloyed oxides;hafnium oxides as Hfl-x Ex Oy, where E can be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd,Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y; Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)Nor Al(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N, y doped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca,Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction;niobate type compounds LiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum OxyFluoride, Barium Strontium Niobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassiumstrontium niobate; or improper ferroelectric includes one of: [PTO/STO]nor [LAO/STO]n, where ‘n’ is between 1 to 100.

Example 15b: The method of example 13b, wherein the paraelectricmaterial includes one of: SrTiO3, Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.5, and yis 0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O, La-substituted PbTiO3, or PMN-PT basedrelaxor ferroelectrics.

Example 16b: A system comprising: a memory organized in a plurality ofmemory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a capacitorcomprising non-linear polar material, wherein an individual memory bankhas an associated valid bit; a processor circuitry coupled to thememory; a memory controller coupled to the memory, wherein the memorycontroller includes one or more circuitries configured to improve memoryendurance of the memory according to a value of the valid bit; and acommunication interface to allow the processor circuitry to communicatewith another device.

Example 17b: The system of example 16b, wherein the memory controller isto read the value of the valid bit for a cache line or word of theindividual memory bank.

Example 18b: The system of example 18b, wherein the memory controller isto lookup a redundant memory for data if the value of the valid bitindicates it is set.

Example 19b: The system of example 18b, wherein the memory controller isto apply an error correction code to the data from the redundant memoryif the value of the valid bit indicates it is set.

Example 20b: The system of example 16b, wherein the valid bit is storedin a SRAM, and wherein the redundant memory comprises SRAM.

Example 1c: An apparatus comprising: a memory organized in a pluralityof memory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a capacitorcomprising non-linear polar material; and a memory controller coupled tothe memory, wherein the memory controller includes one or morecircuitries configured to improve memory endurance of the memory viawear leveling and outlier compensation.

Example 2c: The apparatus of example 1c, wherein an individual memorybank of the plurality of memory banks includes N cache lines or wordsand a gap word.

Example 3c: The apparatus of example 2c, wherein the memory controlleris to request a write to an address of the individual memory bank,wherein the one or more circuitries are configured to swap the gap wordwith an adjacent cache line or word in response to the request.

Example 4c: The apparatus of example 3c, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the one or more circuitries is toincrement the gap pointer after the swap.

Example 5c: The apparatus of example 1c, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.

Example 6c: The apparatus of example 1c, wherein the wear leveling iswith random indexing.

Example 7c: The apparatus of example 6c comprises a random numbergenerator to generate a random number between 0 and 1 for randomindexing.

Example 8c: The apparatus of example 7c, wherein an individual memorybank of the plurality of memory banks includes N cache lines or wordsand a gap word.

Example 9c: The apparatus of example 8c, wherein the memory controlleris to request a write to an address of the individual memory bank,wherein the one or more circuitries are configured to swap the gap wordwith a cache line or word in response to the request and based on therandom number being less than 0.5.

Example 10c: The apparatus of example 9c, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the one or more circuitries is toincrement the gap pointer after the swap.

Example 11c: The apparatus of example 1c, wherein an individual memorybank has an associated valid bit.

Example 12c: The apparatus of example 11c, wherein the memory controlleris to improve memory endurance of the memory according to a value of thevalid bit.

Example 13c: The apparatus of example 12c, wherein the memory controlleris to read the value of the valid bit for the individual memory bank.

Example 14c: The apparatus of example 13c, wherein the memory controlleris to lookup a redundant memory for data if the value of the valid bitindicates it is set.

Example 15c: The apparatus of example 14c, wherein the memory controlleris to apply an error correction code to the data from the redundantmemory if the value of the valid bit indicates it is set.

Example 16c: The apparatus of example 11c, wherein the valid bit isstored in a SRAM, wherein the redundant memory comprises SRAM.

Example 17c: A method to improve memory endurance of the memory via wearleveling, the method comprising: requesting a write to an address of anindividual memory bank, wherein the individual memory bank is part of aplurality of memory banks comprising memory bit cells, wherein anindividual memory bit-cell includes a capacitor comprising non-linearpolar material, wherein the request is a reference to the individualmemory bank, wherein an individual memory bank of the plurality ofmemory banks includes N cache lines or words and a gap word;incrementing a number of references by one upon the requesting;comparing the number of references with a threshold; swapping the gapword with an adjacent cache line or word in response to the number ofreferences is equal to the threshold; requesting a read to an address ofthe individual memory bank; reading a value of a valid bit for a cacheline or word from among the N cache lines or words, in response to theread request; looking up a redundant memory for data if the value of thevalid bit indicates it is set; and applying an error correction code tothe data from the redundant memory if the value of the valid bitindicates it is set.

Example 18c: The method of example 17c, wherein the valid bit is storedin a SRAM, and wherein the redundant memory comprises SRAM.

Example 19c: A system comprising: a memory organized in a plurality ofmemory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a capacitorcomprising non-linear polar material; a processor circuitry coupled tothe memory; a memory controller coupled to the memory, wherein thememory controller includes one or more circuitries configured to improvememory endurance of the memory via wear leveling and outliercompensation; and a communication interface to allow the processorcircuitry to communicate with another device.

Example 20c: The system of example 19c, wherein the memory controller isto: read the value of the valid bit for a cache line or word of theindividual memory bank; lookup a redundant memory for data if the valueof the valid bit indicates it is set; apply an error correction code tothe data from the redundant memory if the value of the valid bitindicates it is set, wherein the valid bit is stored in a SRAM, andwherein the redundant memory comprises SRAM.

An abstract is provided that will allow the reader to ascertain thenature and gist of the technical disclosure. The abstract is submittedwith the understanding that it will not be used to limit the scope ormeaning of the claims. The following claims are hereby incorporated intothe detailed description, with each claim standing on its own as aseparate embodiment.

We claim:
 1. An apparatus comprising: a memory organized in a pluralityof memory banks, wherein the plurality of memory banks comprises memorybit-cells, wherein an individual memory bit-cell includes a non-volatilematerial to store data, wherein the non-volatile material includes oneof: non-linear polar material, a magnet, or a resistive material; and amemory controller coupled to the memory, wherein the memory controllerincludes one or more circuitries configured to improve memory enduranceof the memory via wear leveling, wherein the wear leveling is appliedduring read or write operations to the memory.
 2. The apparatus of claim1, wherein an individual memory bank of the plurality of memory banksincludes N cache lines or words and a gap word.
 3. The apparatus ofclaim 2, wherein the memory controller is to request a write to anaddress of the individual memory bank, wherein the request is areference to the individual memory bank, wherein a number of referencesis incremented by one upon a request.
 4. The apparatus of claim 3,wherein the memory controller compares the number of references with athreshold.
 5. The apparatus of claim 4, wherein the memory controller isto reset the number of references if the number of references is equalto the threshold.
 6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the one or morecircuitries are configured to swap the gap word with an adjacent cacheline or word in response to the number of references is equal to thethreshold.
 7. The apparatus of claim 6, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the one or more circuitries is toincrement the gap pointer after the swap.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1,wherein the non-volatile material includes a non-linear polar material,wherein the non-linear polar material includes one of: ferroelectricmaterial, paraelectric material, or non-linear dielectric.
 9. Theapparatus of claim 8, wherein the ferroelectric material includes oneof: bismuth ferrite (BFO), BFO with a doping material wherein the dopingmaterial is one of Lanthanum, or elements from lanthanide series ofperiodic table; lead zirconium titanate (PZT), or PZT with a dopingmaterial, wherein the doping material is one of La, Nb; relaxorferroelectric which includes one of lead magnesium niobate (PMN), leadmagnesium niobate-lead titanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanum zirconatetitanate (PLZT), lead scandium niobate (PSN), Barium Titanium-BismuthZinc Niobium Tantalum (BT-BZNT), or Barium Titanium-Barium StrontiumTitanium (BT-BST); perovskite includes one of: BaTiO3, PbTiO3, KNbO3, orNaTaO3; hexagonal ferroelectric includes one of: YMnO3, or LuFeO3;hexagonal ferroelectrics of a type h-RMnO3, where R is a rare earthelement which includes one of: cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium(Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La),lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm),samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium(Yb), or yttrium (Y); hafnium (Hf), Zirconium (Zr), Aluminum (Al),Silicon (Si), their oxides or their alloyed oxides; hafnium oxides asHfl-x Ex Oy, where E can be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr,Sn, or Y; Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)N orAl(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N, y doped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca, Ce,Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction;niobate type compounds LiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum OxyFluoride, Barium Strontium Niobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassiumstrontium niobate; or improper ferroelectric includes one of: [PTO/STO]nor [LAO/STO]n, where ‘n’ is between 1 to
 100. 10. The apparatus of claim8, wherein the paraelectric material includes one of: SrTiO3,Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where x is −0.5, and y is 0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O,La-substituted PbTiO3, or PMN-PT based relaxor ferroelectrics.
 11. Theapparatus of claim 1, wherein the wear leveling includes a random wearleveling scheme.
 12. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the memorycontroller is to apply an outlier compensation scheme before or afterthe wear leveling.
 13. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the memorycontroller is to refresh the non-volatile material.
 14. A method toimprove memory endurance of the memory via wear leveling, the methodcomprising: requesting a write to an address of an individual memorybank, wherein the individual memory bank is part of a plurality ofmemory banks comprising memory bit cells, wherein an individual memorybit-cell includes a capacitor comprising non-linear polar material,wherein the request is a reference to the individual memory bank,wherein an individual memory bank of the plurality of memory banksincludes N cache lines or words and a gap word; incrementing a number ofreferences by one upon the requesting; comparing the number ofreferences with a threshold; and swapping the gap word with an adjacentcache line or word in response to the number of references is equal tothe threshold.
 15. The method of claim 14 comprising resetting thenumber of references if the number of references is equal to thethreshold.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the gap word has anassociated gap pointer, wherein the method comprising incrementing thegap pointer after the swapping.
 17. The method of claim 14, wherein thenon-linear polar material includes one of: ferroelectric material,paraelectric material, or non-linear dielectric.
 18. The method of claim17, wherein the ferroelectric material includes one of: bismuth ferrite(BFO), BFO with a doping material wherein the doping material is one ofLanthanum, or elements from lanthanide series of periodic table; leadzirconium titanate (PZT), or PZT with a doping material, wherein thedoping material is one of La, Nb; relaxor ferroelectric which includesone of lead magnesium niobate (PMN), lead magnesium niobate-leadtitanate (PMN-PT), lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT), leadscandium niobate (PSN), Barium Titanium-Bismuth Zinc Niobium Tantalum(BT-BZNT), or Barium Titanium-Barium Strontium Titanium (BT-BST);perovskite includes one of: BaTiO3, PbTiO3, KNbO3, or NaTaO3; hexagonalferroelectric includes one of: YMnO3, or LuFeO3; hexagonalferroelectrics of a type h-RMnO3, where R is a rare earth element whichincludes one of: cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium(Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu),neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm),scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), or yttrium(Y); hafnium (Hf), Zirconium (Zr), Aluminum (Al), Silicon (Si), theiroxides or their alloyed oxides; hafnium oxides as Hfl-x Ex Oy, where Ecan be Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc, Si, Sr, Sn, or Y;Al(1-x)Sc(x)N, Ga(1-x)Sc(x)N, Al(1-x)Y(x)N or Al(1-x-y)Mg(x)Nb(y)N, ydoped HfO2, where x includes one of: Al, Ca, Ce, Dy, Er, Gd, Ge, La, Sc,Si, Sr, Sn, or Y, wherein ‘x’ is a fraction; niobate type compoundsLiNbO3, LiTaO3, Lithium iron Tantalum Oxy Fluoride, Barium StrontiumNiobate, Sodium Barium Niobate, or Potassium strontium niobate; orimproper ferroelectric includes one of: [PTO/STO]n or [LAO/STO]n, where‘n’ is between 1 to
 100. 19. The method of claim 17, wherein theparaelectric material includes one of: SrTiO3, Ba(x)Sr(y)TiO3 (where xis −0.5, and y is 0.95), HfZrO2, Hf—Si—O, La-substituted PbTiO3, orPMN-PT based relaxor ferroelectrics.
 20. A system comprising: a memoryorganized in a plurality of memory banks, wherein the plurality ofmemory banks comprises memory bit-cells, wherein an individual memorybit-cell includes a capacitor comprising non-linear polar material; aprocessor circuitry coupled to the memory; a memory controller coupledto the memory and the processor circuitry, wherein the memory controllerincludes one or more circuitries configured to improve memory enduranceof the memory via wear leveling; and a communication interface to allowthe processor circuitry to communicate with another device.
 21. Thesystem of claim 20, wherein an individual memory bank of the pluralityof memory banks includes N cache lines or words and a gap word.
 22. Thesystem of claim 21, wherein the memory controller is to: request a writeto an address of the individual memory bank, wherein the request is areference to the individual memory bank, wherein a number of referencesis incremented by one upon a request; compares the number of referenceswith a threshold; reset the number of references if the number ofreferences is equal to the threshold; and swap the gap word with anadjacent cache line or word in response to the number of references isequal to the threshold.
 23. The system of claim 22, wherein the gap wordhas an associated gap pointer, wherein the one or more circuitries is toincrement the gap pointer after the swap, wherein the non-linear polarmaterial includes one of: ferroelectric material, paraelectric material,or non-linear dielectric.